Abstract
Utilizing longitudinal data from a stratified random sample of 15,433 retirees from Turkey, a country with uniquely large variation in post‑retirement work years, our study is the first to examine the phenomenology of middle vs. late life in post‑retirement work and demographic intersectionality in retirement. Synthesizing theory in the vocational psychology of retirement with industrial sociology of the life course, the social forces approach we advocate helps shed light on whether documented sex differences in bridge employment participation are caused by social bias or life structure. Results suggest that family and work contexts affecting the gender gap in bridge employment participation may be explained by differing communal and work factors inherent at the intersection of sex and age, and that life stage interacts with social and work opportunity structures very differently for men and women. Yet a nuanced look also points to some trends suggesting a social bias explanation.
Key Findings
- Women were less likely than men to return to work after retirement.
- The gender gap was largest in midlife, especially in the 40s and early 50s, and narrowed in late life.
- Family context mattered most in midlife; married retirees and those with dependents showed the widest gender differences.
- Prior job level also mattered; higher-level careers were linked to wider midlife gender gaps in returning to work.
Challenge
As workforces age and more women spend long periods in paid work, organizations and governments face rising pressure to retain experienced female talent. We therefore examine which social and work conditions help explain gender gaps in post-retirement employment participation. Identifying these patterns can guide policies and workplace practices that support more equitable work opportunities in both mid- and later life.
Research
Aksaray and Marcus (2026) analyzed longitudinal Survey of Income and Living Conditions data from Turkey. Using a stratified random sample of 15,433 retirees aged 40-83 observed between 2006 and 2017, the study tracked month-to-month and year-to-year returns to work after retirement. It compared men and women in midlife versus late life, and examined whether family context and prior job level shaped post-retirement employment patterns.
| Design | Longitudinal panel study |
| Methods | Logistic models of returns to work after retirement |
| Sample | 15,433 retirees in Turkey, aged 40-83, drawn from a stratified random SILC sample |
| Timespan | 2006–2017 |
Findings
Women were consistently less likely than men to return to work after retirement, and this gap was largest in midlife rather than late life. The widest differences appeared among people in their 40s and early 50s, especially when they were married, had dependents, or had retired from higher-level jobs. At ages 55+, the gap narrowed markedly. Overall, the results point less to a simple age-bias story and more to different life structures and opportunity patterns across genders and life stages.
Impact
The study suggests that retention and retirement policies should be tailored by life stage and gender rather than applied uniformly. For organizations, support that reduces caregiving strain such as childcare, eldercare flexibility, or phased-retirement options may help retain experienced women who might otherwise leave work entirely in midlife. For policymakers, the findings show that retirement systems can reproduce gender inequality after formal retirement, especially where retirement can begin relatively early. Effective policy should treat retirement as a transition, not a single endpoint.
Reference
Aksaray, G., & Marcus, J. (2026). Bridge employment in middle vs. late life for men and women: gendered social roles or life structures? Work, Aging and Retirement, 12(1), 69-87. https://doi.org/10.1093/workar/waae019
Contact:
- Main author: Gorkem Aksaray, PhD
- Email: gorkem.aksaray@tcd.ie
Links:
